Asia-Pacific Water Forum

Water – A cross-cutting Tool for Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

The UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), adopted by the international community as the aim and measure of the development effort for the years ahead with a specific commitment “to halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water and the proportion of people who do not have access to basic sanitation”. The UN has also asked for a doubling of the resources available to reach these goals, including a doubling of international aid. It was estimated that 2.4 billion people lack adequate sanitation and 1.2 billion people are without access to safe water ( WHO-UNICEF, 2000). The number of people without access to adequate sanitation rose by around 150 million in the period 1990 to 2000. In 2002,WHO observed that diarrhoea causes 2 million deaths/year, mostly amongst under the age of five. There are approximately a billion cases of disrrhoea each year. About a third of the population of the developing world is infected with intestinal worms which can be controlled through better sanitation, hygiene and water (Chan,1997). It was further estimated that 6-9 million people are reported to be blind due to trachoma and a population at risk from this disease is approximately 500 million. Schistosomiasis causes 200 million people in the world and of whom 20 million suffer severe consequences. The disease is still prevalent in 74 countries of the world. Infection of guinea worm is acute in several sub-Saharan African countries. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions have been shown to reduce such diseases considerably. No doubt, improved water resources management and access to water supply and sanitation have benefits for each of the eight Millennium Development Goals.

Following are the main MDGs and the benefits for each of the Goals upon the improved water resources management and access to water supply and sanitation:

 ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER: Water is a key factor of production in agriculture, industry and economic development. It is further a social and economic resource for any nation. Investments in water infrastructure and services act as a catalyst for local/national/ regional development. Water is key to improved health, improved nutrition and quality of live of the people. The private – public partnership is possible for development of the water resources. Community based management is an essential factor to conserve, properly utilise and develop water resources. Water is a direct input to irrigation for more food grain production. Sustainable management of water resources enhance the production of fish, livestock, food grains and other food items which will reduce urban hunger due to cheaper food prices.
 ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION: Provision of safe water and sanitation facilities in schools is a first step towards a healthy physical learning environment benefiting both learning and health. For girls, improved health will ensure more attendance in schools and will reduce water-carrying burdens. Further, separate sanitation facilities for girls and boys in schools increases girls’ school attendance.
 PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN: Access to safe water and provision of decent sanitary facilities put women and girls at less risk for sexual harassment while gathering water and searching for privacy. Reduced health, and care-giving burdens from improved water services give women time for productive endeavours, education and empowerment activities. Community organisations for water management improve social capital of women.
 REDUCED CHILD MORTALITY: If there is improved quality and quantities of domestic water and sanitation, that will considerably reduce the prevailing child mortality and morbidity in developing countries.
 IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH: Improved health and nutrition reduce susceptibility to anemia and other conditions that affect maternal mortality. Sufficient quantities of clean water for washing pre-and-post birth cut down on life-threatening infections. Higher rates of child survival are a precursor towards lower fertility rates, and fewer pregnancies per women reduce maternal mortality (Source: Interim Report of the Millennium Project Task Force on Water and Sanitation and GWP).
 COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES : Better water management reduces mosquito menace, water-borne diseases and other infections related to water and sanitation. Improved health and nutrition reduce susceptability to HIV/AIDS.
 ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY : Improved water management is very important for ecosystem integrity. Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a key factor for sustainable environment. Improved domestic water supply and sanitation and better water management reduce the biological pathogens and chemical hazards to which slum dwellers are exposed.

| by Dr.Roy Kunjappy | 04.07 2007 10:32 | url: |

FACTS AND FIGURES ON WATER AS A HUMAN RIGHT

 The right to water is already recognized in several legal or political instruments. It guarantees access to water, without discrimination, in a permanent and sustainable manner – and at a socially and economically acceptable cost. It also addresses the issues of subsidiarity, solidarity, and cooperation.
 Increasing recognition is accorded to the right to water, in terms of a human right to a supply of safe water, the role of water rights in helping to deal with local competition for water and in dealing with social, economic and environmental problems.
 Recognizing water as a human right can have a significant impact on national water law, policy, advocacy and development programmes. It can also be a way of promoting an enhanced effort by the international community and local governments to improve water resources management and to meet the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on water supply and sanitation.
 The United Nations affirmed the right to water on 26 November 2002, noting that such a right is ‘indispensable for leading a life in human dignity’ and ‘a prerequisite for the realization of other human rights’.
 Only a few countries have made formal legal commitments to acknowledge a right to water, but even fewer have matched an explicit right to water in their constitutions with actual implementation.
 The Constitution of South Africa states: ‘Everyone has the right to have access to sufficient food and water.’ Water policies and measures to implement this right in South Africa are now being developed.
 In 2004, a Uruguayan referendum enacted the human right to water into the Constitution when more than 64% of the population voted in favour of the amendment.
 Kenya, in its 2004 draft constitution, is now considering the explicit inclusion of the right to water and sanitation in its legislation.
 The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995 provides that every Ugandan is entitled to clean and safe water. The National Water Policy and Water Statute also re-iterate that in allocating water for different uses, first priority should be given to the provision of water of adequate quantity and quality to meet domestic needs.
 Courts in India, Argentina, Brazil and South Africa have, in some cases, reversed decisions to disconnect water supply to poor people who cannot afford to pay.
 So far, the debate on water as a human right has revolved around safe drinking water, but very little on sanitation. Furthermore, basic water needs for direct economic activities, such as agricultural and industrial production, have not been a part of the water as a human right agenda (Courtesy- UNESCO doc. Right to water).

| by Dr.Roy Kunjappy | 04.05 2007 10:32 | url: |

Right to water with reference to the UN Committee on ESCR- General Comment No. 15.

General Comment No. 15 of the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ESCR) states that: ‘the human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses’. It notes that the right to water has been recognised in a wide range of international documents and reaffirms the fundamental importance of the right stating that: ‘the human right to water is indispensable for leading a life in human dignity. It is a prerequisite for the realization of other human rights’.

Part II of General Comment 15 outlines the normative content of the human right to water - ie the individual elements of the right - stressing that these elements must be adequate for human dignity, life and health in accordance with Article 11, paragraph 1, and Article 12.

The right to water comprises the following aspects:

(a) ‘Freedoms’- such as the right to be free from interference through, for example, arbitrary disconnections or the contamination of water supplies, and
(b) ‘Entitlements’ - including the right to a system of water supply and management that provides equality of opportunity for people to enjoy the right to water
The Comment also stresses that water should be treated as a social and cultural good, and not primarily as an economic good, and that the manner of the realization of the right to water must be sustainable.
General Comment 15 acknowledges that while the adequacy of water may vary according to different conditions, three factors apply in all circumstances:
(1) Availability: Each person has the right to a water supply that is sufficient and continuous for personal and domestic uses, such as drinking, ppersonal sanitation, washing of clothes, food preparation, personal and household hygiene. The Comment states that the quantity of water available for each person should correspond to World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, and that it should be taken into account that some individuals and groups may also require additional water due to health, climate, and work conditions.
(2) Quality: The right to water means that not only are people entitled to a sufficient and continuous supply of water, but they are also entitled to water of adequate quality. This means that the water required for each personal or domestic use must be safe and therefore free from micro-organisms, chemical substances and radiological hazards that constitute a threat to a person’s health. Furthermore, water should be of an acceptable colour, odour and taste for each personal or domestic use.
(3) Accessibility: The Comment provides that water and water facilities and services must be accessible to everyone, without discrimination, within the jurisdiction of the State party. It identifies four overlapping dimensions of accessibility, defined as follows:

i) Physical accessibility
Water and adequate water facilities and services must be within safe physical reach of all sections of the population, which is defined as ‘within the immediate vicinity, of each household, educational institution and workplace’. They should be of sufficient quality, culturally appropriate and sensitive to gender, life-cycle and privacy requirements.

(ii) Economic accessibility
Water, water facilities and services and the direct and indirect costs and charges associated with securing water must be affordable for all.

(iii) Non-discrimination
Access to water and water facilities and services should be realised, in law and in fact, without discrimination on any of the prohibited grounds – race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

(iv) Information accessibility
Accessibility is defined as including the right to seek, receive and impart information concerning water issues.

General Comment 15 stresses the obligation of States Parties, under Articles 2 and 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, to guarantee that all Covenant rights are enjoyed both without discrimination and on the basis of equality between men and women.

The General Comment confirms that the prohibition of discrimination includes discrimination on the grounds of age, physical or mental disability, health status (including HIV/AIDS), sexual orientation and civil, political, social or other status which has the intention or effect of nullifying or impairing the equal enjoyment or exercise of any of the rights contained therein, including the right to water (Courtesy: http://www.righttowater.org.uk)

| by Dr.Roy Kunjappy | 04.05 2007 10:31 | url: |

Strategy towards water security for the poor

Meeting the most basic needs of the poor people makes a good opportunity for taking them out of poverty. Often this is also essential for sustainable water management, as poverty itself can be the root cause of many water problems. Poor people are vulnerable to water-related problems in many ways. These affect their health, productivity, and physical safety. The strategy towards water security for the poor is based on a process that improves the conditions of the poor in three aspects of life: to reduce the vulnerabilities that they face, to improve access to high quality water services, and to move toward more sustainable management of water resources (ADB, 2004).
The steps toward water security for the poor can be grouped into six key areas:
 Pro-poor water governance
 Improved access to quality water services
 Improvement to livelihoods and pro-poor economic growth
 Community capacity building and empowerment
 Disaster prevention and mitigation
 Ecosystem management

Water governance has a key role towards the water security for the poor. The wider economy and society, including the structure of society and the nature of participation and strength of civil society, the strength of institutions at the different levels, the form and effectiveness of government institutions and political participation, the structure and dynamism of economy, the availability of different skills, services, and infrastructure, as well as education and media services. Good governance also depends upon the knowledge and understanding of the different stakeholders involved in decisions.

Improved access to quality water services determined by number of factors. This includes the rights and entitlements of poor communities to use particular resources. That will reflects laws and policies as well as traditional rights, social customs, and barriers. Further, infrastructure and technology; ability to pay; knowledge skills, and stakeholder institutions play a major role in the process.

The strategy on improvements to livelihoods and pro-poor economic growth emphasis that eradicating poverty is ultimately creating an environment that will allow the poor to utilize their potential to develop better and more secure livelihoods, which in turn is contingent upon the wider process of economic development and on focused measures to support and develop the livelihoods of the poor. Sustainable water management plays a key role in many aspects of the livelihood process, and in particular is essential to many livelihood activities. Water management is also key foe ensuring the sustainability of many types of new economic ventures that provide investment or employment opportunities for the poor people.

In Empowerment and capacity development, full participation is found where poor communities have a real voice in all aspects of the planning and management process. Actions need to ensure that all sections of society are fairly and equally represented, specifically targeting those previously excluded. These are typically women, the young, and the old as well as social and ethnic minorities. Participation is essential about the redistribution of power toward the powerless, giving it a political dimension that cannot and should not be avoided ( ADB, Poverty and Water Security, 2004).

It is increasingly recognized that disaster prevention and mitigation, needs to be established as a mainstream component of water management systems. Understanding and working effectively to reduce the vulnerabilities of the poor through interventions to improve water management, secure livelihoods, establish more effective governance conditions, build direct stakeholder capacities etc. is a key component for a pro-poor approach to water security.

Sustainable management of Ecosystems and water management is an important area, which needs to consider the variability of water flows through ecosystems and the minimum flows needed to maintain the integrity of these ecosystems to avoid disrupting service flows and to maintain the sustainability of the ecosystems and the availability of water.

| by Dr.Roy Kunjappy | 04.05 2007 10:27 | url: |

Water and poverty

Water scarcity is one of the most severe factors alleviating poverty. In rural areas, water is used for a variety of purposes like irrigating fields, raising livestock, small scale industry, drinking, bathing, cleaning etc. The world population has doubled since 1960, but water use has increased six folds. In many regions of the world, water is a scarce commodity and its use has to be carefully planned. One of the main challenges in the years to come is to grow enough food for an increasing population.

The world’s limited water resources are under increased pressure from population growth, changes in life style and economic development. These changes have high environmental costs such as, some rivers no longer reach the sea; half of the world’ s wet-lands have disappeared; and groundwater aquifers are over-exploited. The poorest countries and poorest people are the most vulnerable.

It was shown that substantial water savings and significant increases in crop productivity, and consequently farmers incomes, can be gained from implementing low-cost technologies such as drip/sprinkle irrigation, treadle pumps, and simple water harvesting systems. Apart from improving access to technologies and fostering management skills, the focus should be on creating and adopting comprehensive national and regional water management policies that ensure efficient, sustainable, and equitable water allocation. Particular emphasis needs to be placed on providing secure and unassailable water rights for the poorest, in order to secure their basic needs

| by Dr.Roy Kunjappy | 04.05 2007 10:26 | url: |

Emerging global water crisis due to unsustainable water withdrawals

More than 98 percent of world’s water is salty. Less than 1 percent of the earth’s freshwater is accessible in lakes, rivers, and groundwater aquifers. That 1 percent of available freshwater is constantly in motion, either flowing in rivers, evaporating and moving around the globe as water vapor, falling from the sky as rain or snow, or filtering slowly through the earth to emerge somewhere else. Water is a renewable resource and it is the genesis and continuing source of all life on earth. Although the total volume of water conveyed annually by the world’s rivers is about 43,000 km3 ( ADB, Water in the 21st Century, 2000) The demand for freshwater increased six fold between 1900 and 1995, twice the rate of population growth. The 1997 UN Comprehensive Assessment of Freshwater Resources of the World concluded that one third of the world’s population today already live in countries experiencing medium to high water stress. High water stress and unsustainable rates of withdrawal are already being experienced in Central and South Asia, where annual water withdrawals compared with available water resources are 50 percent or more.

It was assumed that the global population would expand from today’s 6 billion people to almost 8 billion in 2025. By then, more than 80 percent of the world’s population will be living in developing countries. The World Meteorological Organisation estimates, assuming the renewable water resources will remain unchanged, that the number of countries facing water stress will increase from 29 today to 34 in 2025. About 70 percent of global freshwater withdrawals are directed towards agriculture, mainly for irrigation. UN (1997) estimates that annual water use for irrigation will have to increase about 30 percent above present use for annual crop production to double and meet global food requirements by 2025. In developing countries, irrigation will remain the dominant water use and an increase of 30 percent in irrigation withdrawals may not be possible if other essential human needs are to be met. Whereas in industry sector, which accounts for about 22 percent of current freshwater withdrawals globally, is likely to require an increasing share in all regions of the world. In developing countries, where 56 percent of the population will be living in urban areas by 2025, the share of water going toward domestic uses will also need to grow substantially.

Asia has the lowest per capita availability of freshwater resources among the world’s continents. The two most populous nations in the world, the China and India, will have 1.5 billion and 1.4 billion people, respectively, by 2025, by which time the availability of freshwater will have dropped to 1,500 m3 per capita in India and 1,800 m3 in China. In Bangladesh, groundwater abstraction already represents 35 percent of the total annual water withdrawal; in India, 32 percent; in Pakistan, 30 percent; and in China, 11 percent. Overexploitation of groundwater and aquifer depletion is becoming serious problems in the intensively farmed areas of Northern China, India, Pakistan and many regions in the world. In heavily populated cities such as Bangkok, Jakarta, and Manila, land is subsiding as groundwater is withdrawn to serve the needs of their growing urban populations, and saltwater intrusion is rendering much of the groundwater unusable. (Courtesy: ADB, Water in the 21st Century, 2000)

| by Dr.Roy Kunjappy | 04.05 2007 10:23 | url: |